托福阅读背景知识：欧洲报纸的发展

　　托福阅读真题再现：

　　版本一：

　　第三个 关于欧洲报业发展的原因 报纸开始于荷兰 然后第二段的意思：由于荷兰征服管的比较松 所以荷兰报业就NB了 法国开始有了政府赞助的报纸 虽然对加速了报业的发展 但是有的报纸都是政府的观点(这里有一道题) 往下提到了促进报纸发展的几个因素 我还记得一个：就是商业和经济的发展接着 商人们需要报纸上的信息 当时文章中提到了一堆地名LONDON LIVERPOOL啥的 大概意思就是对商人做生意有好处 在往下 提到了报纸的主要市场在英国 英国的国会中很多人喜欢报纸 因为可以利用报纸的社会舆论使得政治上的竞争对手compromise(原词 而且有题) 再往下是邮政系统的发展让报纸NB了 接着 说城里城外很多邮筒(好像是啊)然后各种CAFE什么的就都有了 然后跟着给了一个法国的什么报纸貌似是例子 这个例子除了一个提 最后说报纸变得大众化了 说报纸有什么影响 有一个是加强community之间的交流 这里除了一个非真实信息题 EXCEPT 最后说一句 这个文章有7段 这篇我就记得这么多了版本二：

　　讲欧洲报纸的发展

　　第一段background information说报纸是很有用的传递信息的工具啊什么的。

　　第二段讲最早的报纸是英国的xxx报纸，同时还有一个公司成立。这俩的关系记不太清了。

　　第三段讲政府开始干涉报纸的发展了。首先必须有政府的批准(license)，是为了control who publish the news。然后政府开始资助一些公司，报纸上会有一些关于政府的事件，类似于决策之类的吧。这些上发生的大事(应该是怕影响到他们的交易)。随着报纸的发展，能把报纸运到各种偏远的地方。

　　第五段讲报纸更加大众化。针对的人群页变成了老百姓们。报纸上会报道各种strange event，百姓能更好的接受。其次也能让百姓觉得自己是社会的一部分。最后，报纸上有了可以让百姓自己写评论的地方。

　　新东方谢真真解析：

　　本文是历史性题材，涉及到欧洲报纸发展的原因，之前的考试中有涉及到美国报业的发展，差别不大。本文是同学们读起来不太陌生的背景知识，在阅读过程中同学们需要重点看出来发展的原因是什么，以及发挥了什么作用，最后一题重点根据发展的原因来分角度选择答案。

　　参考阅读

　　The term newspaper became common in the 17th century. However, in Germany, publications that we would today consider to be newspaper publications, were appearing as early as the 16th century. They were discernibly newspapers for the following reasons: they were printed, dated, appeared at regular and frequent publication intervals², and included a variety of news items (unlike single item news mentioned above). The first newspaper however was said to be the Strasbourg Relation, in the early 17th century. German newspapers, like avisis, were organized by the location from which they came, and by date. They differed from avisis in the following manners: they employed a distinct and highly illustrated³ title page, and they applied⁴ an overall date to each issue.

　　The emergence⁵ of the new media branch in the 17th century has to be seen in close connection with the spread of the printing press from which the publishing press derives⁶ it name.

　　During the 17th century, there were many kinds of publications, that told both news and rumours⁷. Among these were pamphlets, posters, ballads⁸ etc. Even when the news periodicals emerged, many of these co-existed with them. A news periodical differs from these mainly because of its periodicity. The definition for 17th century newsbooks and newspapers is that they are published at least once a week. Johann Carolus' Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, published in Strassburg in 1605, is usually regarded as the first news periodical.

　　In the beginning of the 17th century, the right to print was strictly⁹ controlled in England. This was probably the reason why the first newspaper in English language was printed in Amsterdam by Joris Veseler around 1620. This followed the style established by Veseler's earlier Dutch paper Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c. However, when the English started printing their own papers in London, they reverted¹⁰ to the pamphlet format¹ used by contemporary books. The publication of these newsbooks was suspended between 1632 and 1638 by order of The Star Chamber¹¹. After they resumed publication, the era of these newsbooks lasted until the publication of the Oxford¹² Gazette in 1665.

　　The control over printing relaxed greatly after the abolition¹³ of the Star Chamber in 1641. The Civil War escalated¹⁴ the demand for news. News pamphlets or books reported the war, often supporting one side or the other. Following the Restoration there arose a number of publications, including the London Gazette (first published on 16 November 1665 as the Oxford Gazette),[2] the first official journal of record and the newspaper of the Crown. Publication was controlled under the Licensing¹⁵ Act of 1662, but the Act's lapses¹⁶ from 1679-1685 and from 1695 onwards encouraged a number of new titles.

　　托福阅读背景知识：自然选择所带来的相关灭绝托福阅读真题再现：

　　版本一：

　　2，自然选择的限制，进化并非好处，很大可能导致灭绝。分述前者进化会对后代造成限制，器官间的相互作用。最后说是一些列的偶然，包括进化等等造就了生存下来的早期生物版本二：

　　natural selection不是总是靠谱的因为据记录地球上百分之九十九点几的出现过的进化分支(不知道中文怎么说原文也不记得了可能是evolutionary line?)都灭绝了 这好像是达尔文说的 大概说进化好多时候不是按natural selection或者进化不到perfection.原因一是基因结构的形成互相影响(interact)，不会轻易因为 natural selection改变。还说早期的改变会影响后来的进化，举例说脊椎动物和另一种估计是节肢什么的动物分别进化了internal和external的骨骼，导致后来脊椎动物很多长得很大个，节肢动物顶多有只大个的螃蟹噗哈哈哈还有一个原因好像是自然环境因素，这个记不清了似乎说自然环境变了动物fit in environment也变反正是说可能比起由于natural selection产生的变化多??还有什么面对环境变化幸存的动物后代可能失去一些基因??

　　版本三：

　　题目好像是EXTINCTION¹⁷ 讲的是生物进化的知识 第一段亮观点进化不一定都是物种的选优(原词是perfection)达尔文的进化论虽然对滴但是也有99.9%的evolutionary line(原词好像是这个) 灭绝了 主题就是自然选择不一定都是好事 可能灭绝一些往下继续是一些比较零散的信息： 有一个词汇题resistance 正确选项是opposition¹⁸ 那个词附近是这么个事情 这段的主题是interation 各个结构和器官之间不可能相互independent 一个器官或者组织不足以应对自然界的变化 所以器官之间的resistance会在某种程度上决定这个物种的去留再往下：提到了另一个因素 就是Chance 就是一个物种能不能留下也得靠人品 有一个词汇题indiscriminate答案应该是random 那个附近说了这么个事情 就是一些大灾难用的是catastrophe会是的一些就算是比较NB的物种也完蛋 就是一视同仁不管是谁 所以用了indiscriminate这个词补充resistance的那一段 还提到了genotype基因型 好像是这个意思 在进化过程中优秀的基因会保留 不行的直接完蛋新东方谢真真老师解析：

　　本文讨论的是自然选择这个常考话题，该话题历年来都是常考话题。与以往不同的是，本文侧重的角度是自然选择所带来的相关灭绝，而且没有像之前的话题那样结合某种物种来讨论，同学们在解题中的关键是，阅读完英文后，能对应的理解所描述表达的概念，对同学们抽象内容理解能力也是一定的挑战。

　　托福参考阅读：

　　Natural selection acts solely¹⁹ through the preservation²⁰ of variations in some way advantageous²¹, which consequently endure. Owing to the high geometrical rate of increase of all organic beings, each area is already fully²² stocked with inhabitants; and it follows from this, that as the favoured forms increase in number, so, generally, will the less favoured decrease and become rare. Rarity, as geology tells us, is the precursor²³ to extinction. We can see that any form which is represented by few individuals will run a good chance of utter extinction, during great fluctuations²⁴ in the nature of the seasons, or from a temporary increase in the number of its enemies. But we may go further than this; for, as new forms are produced, unless we admit that specific forms can go on indefinitely increasing in number, many old forms must become extinct. That the number of specific forms has not indefinitely increased, geology plainly tells us; and we shall presently attempt to show why it is that the number of species throughout the world has not become immeasurably great.

　　We have seen that the species which are most numerous in individuals have the best chance of producing favourable²⁵ variations within any given period. We have evidence of this, in the facts stated in the second chapter showing that it is the common and diffused²⁶ or dominant²⁷ species which offer the greatest number of recorded varieties. Hence, rare species will be less quickly modified or improved within any given period; they will consequently be beaten in the race for life by the modified and improved descendants of the commoner species.

　　From these several considerations I think it inevitably²⁸ follows, that as new species in the course of time are formed through natural selection, others will become rarer and rarer, and finally extinct. The forms which stand in closest competition with those undergoing modification²⁹ and improvement will naturally suffer most. And we have seen in the chapter on the Struggle for Existence that it is the most closely-allied forms,-varieties of the same species, and species of the same genus or of related genera,-which, from having nearly the same structure, constitution, and habits, generally come into the severest competition with each other; consequently, each new variety or species, during the progress of its formation, will generally press hardest on its nearest kindred, and tend to exterminate³⁰ them. We see the same process of extermination³¹ amongst our domesticated³² productions, through the selection of improved forms by man. Many curious instances could be given showing how quickly new breeds of cattle, sheep, and other animals, and varieties of flowers, take the place of older and inferior kinds. In Yorkshire, it is historically known that the ancient black cattle were displaced by the long-horns, and that these “were swept away by the shorthorns” (I quote the words of an agricultural writer) “as if by some murderous pestilence³³.”

 

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